Qin Shi Huang, from a hostage's son to the First Emperor
TL;DR — Zheng of Qin, born in Handan to a hostage prince and king at thirteen, conquered six kingdoms between 230 and 221 BC and invented the title huangdi, emperor.
China’s first emperor was Zheng, king of the state of Qin, who conquered the last of six rival kingdoms in 221 BC and gave himself a title no ruler had used before, huangdi. “The state of Qin founds the Chinese empire when it unites the other Chinese states in 221 BCE,” as Columbia University’s Asia for Educators puts it. The fullest early account is chapter 6 of the Shiji, the history written by Sima Qian about a century later, which counts the events by the years of Zheng’s reign. Quotations from the Chinese below are our own translations.
Quick facts
- When
- Born 259 BC; king of Qin at thirteen; the six kingdoms conquered from 230 to 221 BC; Qin dynasty 221–206 BC
- Where
- The state of Qin, with its capital at Xianyang; born at Handan, capital of Zhao
- Who
- Zheng of Qin (Qin Shi Huang); his chancellor Lü Buwei; the general Wang Jian; the minister Li Si
- Outcome
- In 221 BC he took the new title huangdi and divided the realm into 36 commanderies under one set of laws, measures and script
Born in Handan, king at thirteen
Zheng was born in an enemy capital. His father, the future King Zhuangxiang of Qin, was living in the state of Zhao as a hostage. There, according to the Shiji, he met a concubine of Lü Buwei, took her, and she bore a son “in the first month of the 48th year of King Zhao of Qin,” 259 BC, at Handan. The boy was named Zheng.
“At thirteen, King Zhuangxiang died, and Zheng succeeded him as king of Qin,” the chapter continues. Lü Buwei became chancellor, with the title Marquis Wenxin and 100,000 households as his fief, and “the king being young and newly enthroned, affairs of state were left to the great ministers.”
Taking power
The young king’s first test came from inside his court. In his ninth year, 238 BC, Lao Ai, the Marquis Changxin, rose in revolt, forging the seals of the king and the queen dowager to raise troops. The king had his chancellors attack, and the rebels were defeated at Xianyang. In the twelfth year, 235 BC, the Shiji records that “Lü Buwei, Marquis Wenxin, died,” and that he was buried in secret; his followers were driven out or sent into exile.
Six kingdoms in ten years
Then came the conquests, in the order the Shiji gives them:
- Han, in the 17th year (230 BC), when its king, An, was captured.
- Zhao, in the 19th year (228 BC), when its king was taken.
- Wei, in the 22nd year (225 BC), after the general Wang Ben flooded its capital, Daliang, with river water and its king surrendered.
- Chu, which the Shiji calls Jing, in the 23rd and 24th years (224–223 BC).
- Yan, in the 25th year (222 BC), when King Xi was captured in Liaodong.
- Qi, in the 26th year (221 BC), when King Jian was taken.
Chu was the hardest. When the king asked how many men it would need, the general Li Xin said “no more than 200,000,” while the veteran Wang Jian answered, “it cannot be done without 600,000.” Li Xin was sent and was badly defeated. The king rode to Wang Jian’s home to apologize, and “Wang Jian led 600,000 men.” Yan had already tried another way to stop Qin: in the 20th year, 227 BC, its crown prince sent the assassin Jing Ke to kill the king.
A title above king
With every rival gone, the king asked his ministers for a new title. They reminded him that antiquity had a Heavenly Sovereign, an Earthly Sovereign and a Supreme Sovereign, taihuang, “and the Supreme Sovereign was the most honored,” and proposed that he be called taihuang. He changed their proposal: “Drop tai, keep huang, take the ancient title of di, and call it huangdi.”
He then abolished posthumous names, so that sons would not judge fathers. “We are the First Emperor,” he declared. “Later generations shall be counted by number, Second Emperor, Third Emperor, up to ten thousand generations, handed down without end.” The dynasty lasted, by Asia for Educators’ dates, from 221 to 206 BC.
One law, one axle, one script
The same year he reorganized the conquered lands. His ministers proposed making his sons kings of the distant regions; Li Si argued against it, and the emperor agreed, saying that to found new states again “is to plant war.” Instead the Shiji records that he “divided the realm into thirty-six commanderies,” each with a governor, a military commander and an inspector.
Then came the reforms the Shiji compresses into one line. He made “one standard of laws, weights and measures; carts with the same axle width; writing with the same characters.” The weapons of the realm were collected at Xianyang and melted down for bells and twelve bronze figures, and 120,000 wealthy households were moved to the capital. Asia for Educators adds that “the Western word for ‘China’ probably comes from the Romanized spelling of Qin.”
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Key facts
- Zheng was born in 259 BC at Handan, where his father was a Qin hostage in Zhao (Shiji 6).
- He became king of Qin at thirteen, with Lü Buwei as chancellor (Shiji 6).
- Lao Ai’s revolt was defeated in 238 BC, and Lü Buwei died in 235 BC (Shiji 6).
- Qin conquered Han (230), Zhao (228), Wei (225), Chu (223), Yan (222) and Qi (221 BC) (Shiji 6).
- Wang Jian conquered Chu with 600,000 men after Li Xin failed with 200,000 (Shiji 73).
- The title huangdi joined huang, from the ancient sovereigns, with di (Shiji 6).
- He divided the empire into 36 commanderies and standardized laws, weights, measures, axle widths and script (Shiji 6).
FAQ
Who was Qin Shi Huang?
Zheng, king of the state of Qin, who conquered the last of the rival kingdoms in 221 BC and took the new title huangdi. Qin Shi Huang means "First Emperor of Qin."
When was China unified?
In 221 BC, when Qin took the state of Qi, the last of the six kingdoms it conquered between 230 and 221 BC.
Where does the title "emperor" (huangdi) come from?
His ministers proposed taihuang, after the legendary Supreme Sovereign. He kept only huang and added di, an ancient title, to make huangdi.
What did Qin Shi Huang standardize?
The Shiji lists laws, weights and measures, the width of cart axles and the written characters. He also divided the empire into 36 commanderies.
Is the name "China" from Qin?
Probably. Columbia University's Asia for Educators says the Western word for China "probably comes from the Romanized spelling of Qin."
Sources
Cite this article
- APA
- Song Letter. (2026, October 11). Qin Shi Huang, from a hostage's son to the First Emperor. Our Earth's History. https://ourearthshistory.com/east-asia/classical/qin-shi-huang-first-emperor/
- Chicago
- Song Letter. “Qin Shi Huang, from a hostage's son to the First Emperor.” Our Earth's History, October 11, 2026. https://ourearthshistory.com/east-asia/classical/qin-shi-huang-first-emperor/.
- MLA
- Song Letter. “Qin Shi Huang, from a hostage's son to the First Emperor.” Our Earth's History, 11 Oct. 2026, https://ourearthshistory.com/east-asia/classical/qin-shi-huang-first-emperor/.
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